The Importance of the Exodus  

One of the most important events in the Old Testament is the Exodus from Egypt. This event has been celebrated for nearly 3000 years by the Jews and plays a major role in the history of the nation. It is during the Exodus that God displayed His greatest miracles, Israel was established as a nation. and the Law was given. Many of the Jewish festivals come from the Exodus such as the Passover, the Feast of Weeks, and the Feast of Tabernacles.

The Exodus is also a significant event for Christians as well. Jesus quotes the Pentateuch numerous times in His teachings affirming mosaic authorship and specific events mentioned in the Exodus journey of Israel (Mat. 8:4, 19:8, Mk 7:10, 12:26, Lk. 16:31, Jn. 3:14, 5:46). Jesus celebrated the Exodus event of the Passover and gave new meaning to this supper. The importance of the Exodus to the Old and New Testament cannot be understated.

However, did this great event actually happen? There are skeptics and archaeologists called minimalists, who do not believe the Old Testament prior to 1 Kings is historical. Most scholars question the existence of Moses and the historical authenticity of the Exodus account. In fact, most Near Eastern archaeologists believe the Exodus account is a legend invented by Israelite priests of the seventh century B.C. during the reign of Josiah. Minimalists believe the Israelites were actually a powerful Canaanite tribe that rose to prominence in about 1000 B.C. When they established a small empire, they created this myth of the Exodus to give their newly formed nation a history and identity.

If the Exodus did not occur, this would be a major blow to the historical integrity of the Bible and the deity of Christ. It is for these reasons, we need to examine the evidence and see if there is a case for the Exodus and the Conquest of Canaan.

 

The Critics Case Against the Exodus

Here are what some of the top modern Near Eastern Archaeologist say about the Exodus and the early history of Israel.

• Thomas L. Thompson on biblical history: Salvation history is not a historical account of saving events open to the study of the historian. Salvation history did not happen; it is a literary form which has its own historical context. In fact, we can say that the faith of Israel is not a historical faith, in the sense of a faith based on historical events; it is rather a faith within history.^[1]
• Dorothy Irvin on Israelite history: Of these narratives [Davidic lore] as well as all the narratives of the Pentateuch, the historical problem is not so much that they are historically unverifiable, and especially not that they are untrue historically, but that they are radically irrelevant as sources of Israel’s history.^[2]
• Israel Finkelstein and Nadav Na’aman on the conquest: Combination of archaeological and historical research demonstrates that the biblical account of the Conquest and occupation of Canaan [by the Israelites] is entirely divorced from historical reality.^[3]

 

Critics argue that there is little or some even say no archaeology that corroborates an event like the Exodus or the conquest of Canaan. Critics argue that there are no extra biblical records of the Exodus in Egypt or the Near East. They also point out that the archaeological data of Canaan does not match up with the date and events of Israel’s conquest of Canaan.

One of the first things critics point out is that there is no mention of the Hebrews in Egyptian records. Critics argue that plagues killing a massive segment of the Egyptian population, ruining their food supply, the loss of their army and a mass migration of slaves exiting Egypt would have crippled the nation’s economy, military, and government. If this were the case, why is it never mentioned in any Egyptian records?

Another major point of contention is the date of the Exodus and conquest of Canaan. Conservative Bible scholars date the Exodus at 1446 B.C. based on 1 Kings 6:1. This means the conquest of Canaan occurred in 1406 B.C. Most biblical scholars favor a later date of the Exodus around 1260 BC and the conquest at 1220 B.C based on Exodus 1:11 which states that the Israelites built the cities of Pithom and Ramses. Rameses II ruled from 1290-1230 B.C. Either of these dates are problematic because the archaeology in the land of Canaan does not yield strong support for these dates.

A key city is Jericho, the first city Joshua conquered after he crossed the Jordan River. Most archaeologists agree the city was destroyed and abandoned from 1550 BC to 1200 BC. Therefore, if the Exodus occurred in 1446 BC or 1260 BC, when Joshua arrived at Jericho either in 1406 BC or 1220 BC, the city was abandoned. Critics would also argue that the city of Ai which is believed to be the modern et-Tel site, was abandoned at this time as well. Therefore, many conclude that the biblical stories of Jericho and Ai are mythical. If the conquest stories are legendary accounts, minimalists conclude that the Exodus must be as well.

It appears that the critics have a strong case against the Exodus. For generations, the critics were winning the argument and many Christians were beginning to concede that the story of the Exodus may have to be believed on the basis of faith alone. Why is there no mention of the plagues or the loss of the Egyptian army in the Red Sea? Why is there little if any mention of the Exodus in Egyptian records and why is there little archaeology for the Exodus?

There are a few reasons that would account for this. First, while wandering in the desert, Israel remained mobile erecting no permanent settlements or structures. Second Egypt, as is the case with most Middle Eastern kings of the time, would not keep records of such a defeat upon their nation. Not only was such a defeat a blow to a king’s pride but Egypt would not want to alert other nations that she was in a vulnerable position. Third, according to many archaeologists, we have yet to excavate a vast majority of sites and there are many more discoveries yet to be made.^[4]

These are reasonable answers to the critics’ challenge but not very satisfactory. If there was an event as momentous as the Exodus and conquest of Canaan, we should find some historical data that supports such an event. Recent discoveries by archaeologists alongside careful study of the biblical account is beginning to turn the tide. Can we build a case for the Exodus? I believe the archaeology interpreted correctly builds a good case for the Exodus. As we embark on this journey, we must use the best approach in examining the evidence.

 

The Balanced Approach

            In examining the authenticity of the Exodus account, we must begin with the correct approach. There have been two extreme approaches to studying biblical archaeology. Some biblical scholars will base their conclusions solely on the biblical text. After drawing their conclusions, some will look at the archaeological data while some will ignore the data. Authority goes to their interpretation of the biblical text and many dismiss the archaeology that is inconsistent with their conclusion.

This approach upholds the high view of scripture and the doctrine of biblical inerrancy. However, there is the danger when looking at the archaeological data through a biased lens and making the data fit with one’s interpretation. There have been several significant cases when biblical scholars in their haste to make a biblical connection, misread the archaeological data and arrived at the wrong conclusions. Also, it is unwise to ignore archaeology, even the data that does not quite match your interpretation of the Bible. There have been numerous times when archaeology has illuminated our understanding of the text or corrected our understanding of the biblical text.

Other scholars known as minimalists, rely exclusively on archaeology and pay little or no attention to the biblical text. Minimalists believe that archaeology must be viewed objectively and biblical scholars are tainted by their bias and since they approach the data with an agenda, they misread the data. However, it is unwise to ignore the Bible. The Bible has proven to be a good historical record and the Bible often helps archaeologists understand the meaning and context of their discovery.

The best approach I believe, and the one I will be applying is a balanced approach. Dr. Steven Collins calls this the dialogical approach. This approach looks at both the Bible and archaeology. The events of the Bible occur in the land of the Bible. The two are from the same soil and same reality. Therefore, the text can illuminate the archaeology data and the archaeology can illuminate the Bible. When there appears to be a conflict we should not be too quick to dismiss either sources. We need to examine the biblical text and make sure we have interpreted the text properly. There have been times archaeology has corrected faulty interpretation. There are times we need to reexamine the archaeological data. There have been times that the biblical account helped to interpret the data more accurately or later discoveries were able to put the pieces of the biblical puzzle together. Therefore, in this approach we will be interacting with both the biblical text and the archaeology to arrive at the most reasonable conclusion.

We will also be looking at historical synchronisms. This means we will look at both the Egyptian, Near Eastern, and biblical histories to see where there are areas of correspondence with each other. Where there is correspondence in the various records, we can reasonably conclude the time and authenticity of the event. I believe this balanced approach of studying the biblical text and examining the archaeological evidence provides the best way to study the Exodus.

 

Is a Migration of Canaanites Likely?

The Exodus narrative begins in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, Joseph is sold into Egyptian slavery by his brothers. Through the providence of God, Joseph rises from a slave to become the second most powerful ruler in Egypt under the Pharaoh. Eventually, Joseph is reunited with his family and they migrate from Canaan to Egypt. Through the blessing of God, Jacob’s family grows to a sizable population. However, Exodus 1:8 states, “Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know Joseph.” This king viewed foreigners like the Hebrews, as a threat to the nation. To control these foreigners, he forces them into slavery.  Thus Israel was enslaved for several centuries.

Critics argue that the story of Joseph is fictitious for several reasons. First, a large migration of Asiatics into Egypt is unlikely for the Egyptians would not allow such a thing. Second, it is even more unlikely that the Egyptians would allow a foreigner to arise to such a prominent position as Joseph did. Is there evidence of migrants into Egypt during this period and could a foreigner indeed rise to prominence in an empire like Egypt?

One of the repeating themes in the patriarchal narratives is the recurrence of drought in the land of Canaan. Through studies in climatology, pedology (study of the soil), geology, geography, geomorphology, paleobotany, and other sciences, archaeologists can determine climates of each period and when droughts occurred. The Patriarchs from Abraham to Joseph date from the time of the Middle Bronze Age II (1900-1550 BC). During the preceding periods, the Intermediate Bronze Age (2300-2100 BC.) and the Middle Bronze Age I (2100-1900 BC.), there was ample rainfall and the population in the Levant grew considerably. During the MBA II period, the southern Levant suffered from several periods of drought after 1900 BC. which drove thousands of Semitic people to the Nile Delta. We know this because in the soil of this period you see wind born sands and not water sediments in the core samples. This indicates a period of famine. This is how we know that famine started in the 19th century BC.

Egyptian records reveal numerous records of nomadic groups entering into Egypt as early as the twentieth century BC which would be during the time of the patriarchs. Trading between the Semitic world and Egypt was commonly practiced. Archaeologists have found numerous Egyptian artifacts throughout Canaan from this period confirming that there was extensive trade between the lands of Canaan and Egypt.^[5]

There is a famous wall painting in a tomb in Egypt at Beni Hasan dated 1890 BC. This painting depicts a group of Asiatic traders, metalsmiths and shepherds traveling from the Levant into Egypt. The Beni Hasan painting depicts these Asiatic nomads with full heads of hair, beards and many wearing multi-colored kilts for men and long colorful garments for women.^[6] Genesis 37:3 states, “Now Israel loved Joseph more than any other of his sons, because he was the son of his old age. And he made him a robe of many colors.”  This would match the style of clothing worn during this period by the people of Canaan.

There are Semitic migrants known as the Hyksos who migrated to Egypt in 1730 BC from the Levant. The Hyksos grew in number and eventually took the throne to rule over the Nile Delta region or northern Egypt for nearly a century. In fact, Dynasty 15-17 is known as the period of the Hyksos. The name Hyksos is an Egyptian term meaning foreigners. The Hyksos were eventually expelled in 1570 BC.^[7]

The Hyksos who came from the Levant, would have welcomed Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to Egypt. Joseph’s ascent to power would have occurred under the Hyksos kings who were friendly to migrants for they themselves migrated into Egypt. Thus, it is reasonable that the story of the Hebrews migrating to Egypt, flourishing, and Joseph ascending to power is reasonable during the rule of the Hyksos.

 

Enslavement of the Hebrews

The book of Exodus opens with this scenario;

 

Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. And he said to his people, “Behold, the people of Israel are too many and too mighty for us. Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, lest they multiply, and, if war breaks out, they join our enemies and fight against us and escape from the land.  (Genesis 1:8-10)

The Hyksos kings were Asiatic migrants, most likely Canaanites, who entered Egypt in the 18^th century BC. and eventually took over the rule of Egypt. The 15^th to the 17^th dynasties of Egypt are known as the Hyksos dynasty which lasts from about 1650 BC to 1550 BC. Under the rule of the Hyksos, Joseph ascended to power and the Hebrews lived in peace and flourished in Egypt.

In 1550 BC, the Pharaoh from southern Egypt named Ahmose, came up to the north, defeated the Hyksos rulers, and expelled them from the land. The eighteenth dynasty BC begins with Ahmose who expels the Hyksos and reunifies northern and southern Egypt.

It is Pharaoh Ahmose who has a hatred for Asiatic migrants in Egypt because of the Hyksos. To prevent another group of foreigners like the Hyksos from taking over Egypt, he reinforces eastern border of Egypt by putting military outposts along the Red Sea and the eastern border of the Nile to keep the Asiatics out. After building his eastern border, he turns his concern to the foreigners in the land.

To control them, he begins the slavery of foreigners and puts them to work on government projects building store cities for the empire. It is during this time the Egyptians regularly raided the lands of Canaan and Syria to capture slaves to bring to Egypt. They did this not only to acquire slaves but to control the population of Canaan and Syria. It is at this time the population of Canaan drops approximately seventy-five percent.^[8] Since the Pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty were concerned with keeping the population of foreigners down, the command in Exodus 1:16 to throw Hebrew newborn boys into the Nile is very plausible.

In Old and Middle kingdoms of Egypt, forced labor was mostly for agriculture and domestic use. In the New Kingdom (1540-1170 BC) Egypt’s kings brought back many slaves from their conquest of Syria and Canaan.  A scene in the tomb chapel of the vizier Rekhmire (1450 BC) shows foreign slaves making bricks for the workshop-store places of the Temple of Amun at Karnak. The Louvre leather scroll, a 13^th century BC document, records that a quota of 2000 bricks was required of the slaves. This is consistent with Exodus 5:8 which states that the Israelites had a quota of bricks.^[9]

Exodus 1:13-14 states the Egyptians, “… ruthlessly made the people of Israel work as slaves and made their lives bitter with hard service, in mortar and brick, and in all kinds of work in the field. In all their work they ruthlessly made them work as slaves.” In a painting in the tomb of Menna, a scribe for Pharaoh Tuthmosis IV, depicts an overseer beating a slave while another begs for mercy.^[10]

It appears that the conditions described in Exodus 1 match the historical state of Egypt at the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty. The foreign Hyksos kings were expelled by Ahmose who would fit the profile of the pharaoh that arose in Egypt who Exodus 1:8 states, “…did not know the name of Joseph.” Coming from southern Egypt he would not have known of Joseph and how he saved Egypt during the time of famine. Pharaoh Ahmose enslaves foreigners and treats them harshly matching the condition the Hebrews find themselves in according to Exodus 1. Thus, the stage is set for the Exodus.

 

The Date of the Exodus

Bible scholars and archaeologists propose three possible dates for the Exodus: The early date of 1446 BC, the late date of 1260 BC, and the middle date of 1406 BC. To discover the date, I will be looking at the Bible and archaeology to see which date has the strongest support of the evidence.

Those who argue for the early date arrive at this date from two key passages in the Old Testament. 1 Kings 6:1 states that 480 years passed between the Exodus and the fourth year of Solomon’s reign. Solomon ruled from 971-931 BC. This would place the date of the Exodus at 1446 BC. Another passage comes from Judges 11:26. In this passage the Israelite judge Jepthah, in a dispute with the Ammonites, informed them that Israel had been in the area for 300 years. Jepthah ruled the land in 1100 BC. When you add 300 years, you arrive at 1400BC. Therefore, if the Exodus occurred in 1446 BC followed by the forty-year wandering in the desert, the initial stage of the conquest would be 1406 BC. This would match the timeline presented in these two passages.

Most archaeologists today favor a later date of the Exodus around 1260 BC. The key passage for this date is Exodus 1:11 which mentions that the Israelites built the cities of Pithom and Rameses. According to Egyptian records, Dynasty 19 is the Rameses Dynasty. It is concluded that the city of Ramses in this passage was most likely dedicated to Ramses II who ruled from 1290 – 1230 BC. Most archaeologists believe that the Israelites entered Canaan about 1230-1220 BC.

 

Problems with the Early and Late dates

Each date for the Exodus has its challenges. Let us first take a look at the challenges for the late date of the Exodus in 1260 BC. First, this date does not match up with the biblical chronology given to us in 1 Kings 6:1 and Judges 11:26.

Another discovery that favors an earlier date is the Merneptah Stele. Pharaoh Merneptah invaded the land of Canaan in 1220 BC. The Mernepteh Stele dated in 1210 BC describes his victory over the cities of Canaan and mentions the nation of Israel. This is the first extra-biblical artifact that mentions the Israelites in the land of Canaan. In this stele, Merneptah mentions that the Israelites were already established in the land when he confronted them. In this inscription, Israel is not identified as a city-state or a kingdom but as a people group.^[11] In other words, at this time, Israel was a loose confederation of tribes without a central government or capital city. This fits the description of Israel during the time of the Judges.

It is important to know that Egypt regularly launched military campaigns into Canaan for hundreds of years. In Egyptian records there are the “Nine Bows” which are the nine main perennial enemies of the Egyptians in Canaan. The Merneptah Stele shows that Israel was in the land for a significant period of time because Israel is mentioned as one of the “Nine Bows” or regular enemies of Egypt.^[12] Joe Holden states,

“Israel’s listing along with other established cities and biblical lands implies that Israel was comparable in importance and not an insignificant wandering tribe of Bedouins. The dating of Israel’s presence in the land supplied by the Merneptah Stele fits well with the timing of the Exodus from Egypt and the subsequent conquest of Canaan in about 1400 BCE.”^[13]

 

It seems highly unlikely that Israel could invade the land of Canaan in 1220 BC and establish themselves in the land and further become identified as one of the “Nine Bows” or perennial enemies of Egypt all within a decade. I believe the late date is possible but it is problematic.

However, both the early date of 1446 BC and the late date of 1260 BC of the Exodus face some serious difficulties. First, as mentioned in the prior section, with the plagues that ravaged Egypt, the loss of a massive working force, getting plundered of their treasures and the loss of their army and pharaoh, we would expect the collapse of the Egyptian empire. However, the eighteenth dynasty from 1560 BC to 1400BC, was at its height of power. During this period, Egypt actually extended its territory from the Nile to the Euphrates. If the Exodus occurred in 1446 BC, that is during the time of Amenhotep II when Egypt was at the height of its golden age.

Rameses II ruled from 1279-1212 BC. He is considered the greatest pharaoh of the 19^th dynasty. During his rule, Egypt did not suffer any loss of power. Rameses II built great monuments that have been discovered. He fought in several battles against the Hittites and other nations, and made several international treaties. Pharaoh Merneptah who followed Rameses II did not experience a serious decline in power. In fact, he led several military campaigns into Canaan and wrote of his victories. His most famous inscription on the Merneptah Stele which records his victory over the Canaanite nations including Israel.

Another significant problem is the city of Jericho. According to Joshua 6, Jericho was a mighty walled fortress city. However, excavations at Jericho by Kathleen Kenyon in the 1950s revealed that the city of Jericho was abandoned from 1550 to 1200 BC. Kenyon’s study of the pottery revealed the city was destroyed in the Middle Bronze Age. Therefore, if the Exodus occurred in 1446 or 1260 BC, Joshua would have come upon a deserted ruin. Recent excavations have revealed that the city was destroyed during the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1550 BC).

However, there was a walled town at the site dating to the fourteenth century BC that Kenyon missed or ignored. So, Jericho was not occupied from 1550 to 1400 BC. However, it was occupied and fortified during the Late Bronze Age IIa (1400-1300 BC). Then it was destroyed and abandoned from Late Bronze Age IIb (1300-1200 BC).^[14]  Therefore, the early date of the Exodus is eliminated but so is the late date of the Exodus because according to those conquest dates, 1406 BC and 1220 BC, Jericho was abandoned.

Is there another alternative date that would match the biblical timeline and the archaeology? I believe there is.

 

The Case for the Middle Date

There is a third date for the Exodus that should be considered. This would be 1406 BC. When you take this date, the biblical and archaeological evidence seems to come together like the pieces of a puzzle. Let us first take a look at the biblical evidence.

1 Kings 6:1 states that the Exodus occurred 480 years before Solomon began building the Temple in the fourth year of his reign. Solomon’s reign began in 970 BC and four years later would be 966 BC. This leads us to a date for the Exodus at 1446 BC which seems to pose a problem for the middle date of 1406 BC.  However, the number 480 years comes from the Masoretic Text of the Old Testament. The Masoretic Text is the Hebrew text that is used by most of our English translations. This text dates from around the tenth century AD.^[15] The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Old Testament and was written in the third century BC so it predates the Masoretic Text by over one thousand years.

1 Kings 6:1 in the Septuagint reads, “And it happened, in the four hundred fortieth year of the departure of the sons of Israel from Egypt, in the fourth year in the second month, when King Solomon reigned over Israel.”^[16] The 440 year reading brings us to an Exodus date of 1406 BC.

One objection raised is this. If Jacob entered Egypt during the rule of the Hyksos (1650-1550 BC), there is a chronological problem with the middle and early dates of the Exodus. Exodus 12:40 states that, “…the time that the people of Israel lived in Egypt was 430 years.” If Jacob entered Egypt during the Hyksos rule which began in 1650 BC, 430 years would put the Exodus at the earliest 1220 BC. How is this problem resolved?

The answer is found once again in the Septuagint. The Septuagint which predates the Masoretic Text by one thousand years states, “Now the residence of the sons of Israel during which they dwelt in the land, Egypt, and in the land of Canaan was four hundred and thirty years.”^[17] Therefore, the 430 years would extend from Abraham to Israel’s sojourn in Egypt. If this is the case Abraham to Jacob is about 215 years. Jacob migrates to Egypt and the Hebrews remain there for another 215 years. If we look at the math, the chronology fits. The Hyksos reign from approximately 1650 BC to 1550 BC.  If Jacob entered Egypt in the late 17^th century BC, a 215 year sojourn in Egypt would bring us to an approximate date of mid to late 15^th century BC date for the Exodus.

I believe the Septuagint reading on Exodus 12:40 and Judges 6:1 is correct for the following reasons. First, the Septuagint is written in the third century BC and predates the Masoretic Text which was written in the 10^th century AD. Second, Jesus and Paul when quoting the Old Testament, quote the Septuagint version of the Old Testament. Third, Paul writes in Galatians 3:16-17 that the Law of God came 430 years after Abraham. In other words, it was 430 years from Abraham to Moses. Paul here is referring to the Septuagint reading of Exodus 12:40. Finally, Josephus in his book, The Antiquities of the Jews, states that the time from Jacob’s migration to Egypt to the Exodus was 215 years. (Antiquities of the Jews, Book 2.15.2) We can conclude that there is strong biblical support for the Exodus date of 1406 BC. Does the archaeological data match up with this date?

The date of the Exodus is critical because with the correct date, the biblical account and the archaeology synchronize with one another. There is a catastrophic collapse of an Egyptian dynasty that we are looking for. There are Near Eastern documents, inscriptions, and archaeological discoveries that support an Exodus account. Now that we have the date of the Exodus, let us take a look at the archaeological evidence for the Exodus.

 

The Archaeological Evidence

If we take the date of the Exodus at about1406 BC (give or take a few years), I believe there is a good amount of archaeological evidence that builds a strong case for the Exodus. Remember that we should not expect to find the Exodus recorded in Egyptian documents because the Egyptians would not record such a humiliating defeat to a nation of slaves. There are several reasons for this.

First, the Egyptians recorded events with the intention to present an idealized history of the pharaoh. Therefore, they did not record anything negative. Second, they wanted to portray their Pharaohs as god-like figures so a defeat would humanize their king. Third, recording defeats would invite division and rebellion. Therefore, we should look for clues from the Egyptian records and history that connect with events described in the Exodus account.

Consider the events of the Exodus:

• Ten plagues ravaged the land.
• The loss of all firstborn Egyptian males in the land
• The loss of Pharaoh’s army in the Sea of Reeds
• The death of Pharaoh with his army (Ex. 14:28, Ps. 136:15)
• The plundering of Egyptian wealth by the Israelites upon their departure
• The sudden loss of a mass group of slave labor

 

What effect would calamities like these have on the nation? Catastrophes like those of the Exodus would ruin the Egyptian empire (Exodus 10:7). We then must ask, “Is there a dynasty of Egypt that suddenly collapsed?” We must also look at the surrounding world powers and see if they were aware of a sudden weakening of the Egyptian Empire.

In summary, here is what we are looking for in archaeology. First, are there any historical documents in the Egyptian records that could be connected with the Exodus event. Remember, the Egyptians would not mention a defeat to Israel directly but they may have recorded activities related to or aftermaths of the devastations from the Exodus. Second, we are looking for the sudden collapse of an Egyptian dynasty that would have resulted from the catastrophes of the Exodus. Third, we are looking for historical records from the surrounding nations to see if they perceived or took advantage of the collapse of the Egyptian empire.

If we take the early date of the Exodus, 1446 BC, the ruler of the Egyptian Empire would be Tuthmosis III (1497-1443 BC) or Amenhotep II (1443-1417 BC). The problem is that there is no sudden collapse of the empire under these Pharaohs. In fact, both men ruled during the height of the Egyptian Empire. At this time, Egypt controls the territories from the Nile and all of Canaan up to the Euphrates River. In fact, both Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II are victorious in many battles suppressing uprisings in Canaan.

The late date of the 13^th century BC states that Ramses II (1279-1212 BC), is the pharaoh during the Exodus but his reign and the empire never suffers a power loss. No other world power of the Near East senses a decline of power in Egypt during the 13^th century BC during his reign.

Is there a dynasty that suffers a sudden collapse? The answer is “no” for the early date of the Exodus and late date of the Exodus. However, when you look at the period around the middle date, you have a very interesting series of circumstances.

The 18^th Dynasty is established by Ahmose who expels the Hyksos kings and reunites the Egyptian power in 1550 BC. The empire grows in power as the succeeding pharaohs of the dynasty defeat the city-states of the Levant expanding Egypt’s control over the area. Tuthmosis III (1497-1443 BC) is considered the greatest and most powerful pharaoh of Egypt. Under his rule, the Egyptian empire attains its largest expanse. He conquers the Levant and extends Egypt’s border from the Nile to the Euphrates River. His son Amenhotep II (1443-1417 BC) continued the control over this territory crushing rebellions in Canaan and Syria.

Tuthmosis IV ascended to the throne of Egypt in 1417 BC at its height. He had established himself as a mighty warrior and commander by the age of twenty. Suddenly in 1406 BC, he died a strange and sudden death and the 18^th dynasty collapsed soon after.^[18] Exodus 14:28 and Psalm 136:15 indicate that Pharaoh died with his army in the Red Sea. Tuthmosis IV died at a very young age. His mummy reveals he was a healthy and handsome young man when he died. There is also no indication of any wounds or sickness. Death by drowning would be a viable explanation for his death.

After the death of Tuthmosis IV, the Egyptian empire quickly unravels. Here is a brief overview of its sudden decline. Amenhotep III succeeds Tuthmosis IV. Amenhotep III withdraws from the Levant and Egypt loses control over the territory they once ruled. We know this because the nations battle over the territory and the city-states rebel without a response from Egypt. Plagues are still ravaging the land of Egypt. ^[19]

Amenhotep IV succeeds Amenhotep III and Egypt continues to decline. Canaan disintegrates into chaos and the kings of the land even call upon Egypt for help but Egypt is silent. The empire of Hatti (Hittites) sensing Egypt’s weakness attacks the nation of Mittani, the nation east of the Euphrates River, who had a strong alliance with Egypt and seizes the territory of northern Canaan. Despite Mittani’s pleas for help, Egypt is helpless to come to the aid of their ally.^[20] Interestingly, Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten. He then strangely abandons the gods of Egypt and orders the nation to worship the god Aten alone. He adopts a form of monotheism. No one knows the reason he did this but perhaps he saw or heard of the impotence of the Egyptian gods against the God of Israel. He forbids the worship of the traditional gods of Egypt and even destroys their temples. For this reason, he is despised by the Egyptians and is known as the heretic king.

Following Akhenaten is Smenkhkare (1351-1349 BC), and then Tutankhamun (1349-1340 BC).  Together both kings rule for only a decade. King Tut’s widow Ankhesenamun, realizes the desperate situation Egypt is in. In a bizarre move, she begs Egypt’s enemy, the Hittite king Suppiluliuma to send one of his sons to marry her. In other words, Ankhesunamun was handing over Egypt to the Hittites. Stunned by the offer, Suppiluliuma sends an envoy to Egypt to make sure this is not a trick. After confirming the offer, he sends his son Zidanza to marry the Egyptian Queen. However, one of the Egyptian generals Horemheb assassinates the Hittite prince and takes over the throne of Egypt. This is the end of the 18^th dynasty of Egypt.^[21]

The collapse of Egypt’s dynasty is sudden and devastating. Egypt overnight goes from world super power to a nation in so much trouble, the queen is willing to hand it over to an enemy empire. What is the cause of this sudden collapse? The events of the Exodus are a reasonable cause for the fall of the Egyptian Empire. When you look at the biblical text and the archaeological data, the pieces of the puzzle begin to fit.

 

Amarna Tablets

The Egyptian Empire rose to its greatest height under Tuthmosis IV, the great warrior king. However, he suddenly dies in the prime of his life and the empire collapses. The collapse of Egypt coincides with the dates of the Exodus. How do we know the Egyptian empire quickly collapsed since Egypt would never record such a humiliating defeat to a slave nation? We need to look not only at clues in Egypt but from the surrounding nations.

During the 18^th dynasty, Egypt ruled over the Levant. The Pharaohs have military outposts throughout the land and they regularly had military campaigns in the area to squelch any rebellions, capture slaves, and expand their territory. However, after the death of Tuthmosis IV, they lose control of the Levant. This coincides with the Israelite conquest of Canaan. What is significant to note is that Joshua never encounters the Egyptians when he invades Canaan. This is significant because Canaan was Egyptian territory. Why was there no Egyptian presence during Joshua’s invasion? As we stated earlier, the Egyptian empire was in freefall and they had pulled out of Canaan. This was an opportune time for the Israelites to take the land.

One of the most important historical documents that tell us what occurred in this period are the Amarna tablets. The Amarna tablets were discovered in 1887 among the ruins of Akhenaten’s palace at a site known as el-Amarna, 200 miles south of Cairo. Over 300 cuneiform tablets were found.^[22] These tablets are the correspondence letters between the Canaanite Kings and Egypt during the last 10 years of Amenhotep III reign and first 12 years of Akhenaten’s reign, the two kings who followed Tuthmosis IV who I propose as the Pharaoh of the Exodus.  Some of the letters have the regnal year of the Pharaoh that tell us when the text was received.

In these letters, we find the kings of Canaan pleading with Amenhotep III and Akhenaten to send military aid to the land because it is falling into a state of turmoil. In fact, the kings state a group of nomads they call the Habiru are overtaking the city-states. They send numerous letters pleading for help and asking why the Pharaoh does not even respond to their pleas for help.

An example is a letter from Abdi-Heba, the ruler of Jerusalem who was concerned about marauding nomads known as Habiru. Abdi-Heba affirms his loyalty to the pharaoh and pleads for help.

“At the feet of the king, my Lord, seven times and seven times I prostrate myself….All the territories of the king have rebelled … May the king take care of this land … If there are archers [here] this year, all the territories of the king will remain [intact]; but if there are no archers, the territories of the king, my Lord, will be lost.”^[23]

 

The invading force in Canaan are the Habiru, a term which means marauding nomads. This term generally refers to a group of invading nomads but in the Amarna tablets, this is apparently a very large army.^[24] After forty years of desert wandering, this would be the time the Hebrews would be invading the land. Many scholars see a connection between the designation of Habiru and the Hebrews.

Another significant highlight in the Amarna letters is that several letters are written by the Canaanite city kings against the King of Shechem named Labayu. The Canaanite kings protest that Labayu has aligned himself with the Habiru who have set up their headquarters around Shechem. The kings further warn that if Egypt does not come, Labaiyu will take more land including Jerusalem. The name Lab’ayu means “lion of Yahweh.” In the book of Genesis, the patriarchs settled in Shechem for periods of time. In fact, Jacob’s land was originally in Shechem and that is where he bought the burial land for his family (Josh. 24:32). Therefore, Lab’ayu may have been a worshipper of Yahweh, the God of Israel. His alliance with Israel would fit in this context.^[25]

In the Bible, Joshua takes Jericho, then Ai, and then Bethel. Joshua sets up his base camp between Mt. Gerizim and Mt. Ebal (Josh. 8:33). Shechem rests between these two mountains. Joshua marched his people to Shechem and did not attack Shechem. Nor did he attack Beth Haven because that is Shechem’s territory.

The Amarna tablets affirm the fall of the Egyptian Empire which we can reasonably conclude resulted from the catastrophes of the Exodus. The Amarna tablets affirm the conquest narrative of Joshua as well. When you have the right date, the archaeological data and the biblical text come together nicely.

 

The Fall of Mittani

As we study the Exodus we are looking for historical synchronisms or historical events that correspond to the events of the Exodus. Remember, the Egyptians would not record their defeat to the nation of Israel for it was humiliating to the nation, the pharaoh needed to be portrayed as an invincible god, and news of a defeat would alert the surrounding nations of Egypt’s vulnerability. Therefore, we need to look for clues from the surrounding nations.

Egypt’s height of power occurs during the 18^th dynasty (1550 – 1290 BC). Under Tuthmosis IV, the empire is at the pinnacle of her power. Egypt controls the territories from the Nile to the Euphrates River. Suddenly, Tuthmosis IV dies and Egypt’s empire collapses. Egypt loses control of the Levant and withdraws from Canaan. As Canaan falls into disarray, the kings of Canaan in the Amarna letters plead for help from Egypt but Egypt is unable to respond. The death of Tuthmosis IV and the collapse of Egypt coincide with the date of the Exodus.

The evidence for the collapse of Egypt’s empire is further confirmed by the fall of her ally the nation of Mittani. The Mittani kingdom flourished from 1500–1340 BC. This empire covered the area of modern day southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq. The other empire that loomed to the north was the empire of Hatti or the Hittites. They occupied the territory of eastern Turkey. Both the empires of Hatti and Mittani wanted access to the Mediterranean through the Levant corridor which was controlled by Egypt. The Egyptian pharaohs often battled with Hatti and Mittani to keep control of this corridor.

Tuthmosis IV, decided a better strategy to keep control of the territory would be to build an alliance with one of these nations. Egypt had a relationship with both nations but Tuthmosis IV decided to build an alliance with Mittani. This alliance sealed Egypt’s control of the territories from the Nile to the Euphrates and gave Mittani access to the Meditteranean. As a result of this alliance, Hatti became the enemy of Egypt and Mittani.^[26]

With the death of Tuthmosis IV and Egypt’s empire crumbling, Egypt withdraws from the Levant. Amenhotep III cannot hold onto the Levant and withdraws from the territory.  Hatti seeing Egypt’s downfall realizes their opportunity to attack Mittani and seize control of the Mediterranean corridor. The warrior king Suppiluliuma I, crosses the Euphrates and destroys the capital city of Mittani, Washukanni and Mittani is crushed.

The fall of Mittani shows us how great and rapid Egypt collapsed from their position as the world’s super power. Obviously, something catastrophic occurred in Egypt to bring down this mighty empire so rapidly. An event like the Exodus is a reasonable explanation. The date of the Exodus and the events of the Exodus coincide with the collapse of Egypt and her allies.

 

Ipuwer Papyrus

The ten plagues ravaged the land of Egypt. So great was its destruction that after the seventh plague, pharaoh’s servants exclaimed, “Do you not yet understand that Egypt is ruined?” (Exodus 10:7) Critics argued that such an event would have been noted somewhere but there no record of such catastrophes in the Egyptian records.

There is a famous document named the Ipuwer Papyrus or Papyrus Leiden. This ancient document was obtained by a Swedish diplomat named Giovani Anastasi and sold it to the Leiden Museum in Holland in 1828. The significance of this manuscript was not discovered until it was translated by British Egyptologist Alan Gardiner. This manuscript dates some time prior to the 13^th century BC. The style of writing matches the hieratic script used in the period of the Exodus.^[27]

This text is a lamentation written by an Egyptian official named Ipuwer. He laments over disasters that struck Egypt sometime prior to the thirteenth century BC. Ipuwer describes a series of disasters that struck Egypt which appear to be very similar to the plagues of the Exodus. The similarities are striking. Ipuwer records the following:^[28]

• The Nile River turning to blood
• Men thirst as they search for water along the Nile
• Fire from on high torches the land
• Trees are destroyed
• Grain is gone from the land
• The cattle are in agony
• Darkness covers the land
• The firstborn children are dead and there is groaning in the land
• The jewelry of the women is given to slaves
• Slaves flee into the desert like nomads who live in tents

 

There is a remarkable parallel to the plagues of the Exodus. The date of this manuscript and the close parallel to the biblical account make it reasonable to conclude that Ipuwer is writing about the Exodus plagues.

 

A Heretic Pharaoh

In 1368 BC, Amenhotep IV became pharaoh of Egypt. Soon after taking the throne, he changed his name to Akhenaten (“blessed of the Aten”). He abandons the Egyptian pantheon of gods and orders everyone to worship only one god, Aten.^[29] He moved the capital from Thebes to central Egypt, the present day Tel-Amarna. He built temples for Aten there and claimed that he alone had access to Aten. This rendered the Egyptian priesthood unnecessary.

Akhenaten went on to make religious reforms throughout the land. He closed temples to other gods, tore down images, and forbade rituals and literature for other gods. The cities that were dedicated to other gods were eventually abandoned. Worship of Aten included no images and worship was reduced to an offering on an altar. Aten alone was to be worshipped to the exclusion of all other gods.^[30]

A hymn to Aten was discovered in the tomb of Ay, one of the king’s secretaries. It tells of Aten being the creator and sustainer of the world. Then it proclaims that he alone is God and there is no other. “How manifold are thy works! They are hidden from the sight of men, O sole God, like unto whom there is no other! Thou didst fashion the earth according to thy desire when thou wast alone -….”^[31] Here Aten is described as the only God who is the creator of the world and all living things.

Egyptologist Cyril Aldred states,

The monotheism that Akhenaten proclaims is not the henotheism of earlier times, the belief in one supreme god without any assertion of his unique nature, but the worship of an omnipotent and singular divinity. The full development of the king’s thought is seen in the careful suppression late in the reign of the plural form of ‘god’ wherever it appears in the earlier texts. There is now but one god, and the king was his prophet.^[32]

The type of monotheism Akehnaten promoted was unique and unparalleled in Egyptian civilization. Akhenaten was viewed as a heretic and his beliefs stood strongly against the religion that was practiced for centuries. When he died, Egypt returned to their pantheon of gods.

What caused Akhenaten’s sudden and drastic change in his religion? It must have been something significant that would motivate him to abandon the traditional gods of Egypt and instill an exclusive worship of one God and forbidding the worship of any others? A reasonable answer is that he witnessed the impotence of the Egyptian gods and heard of the one supreme God who delivered a people from captivity with His mighty hand just about forty years prior. Meanwhile, plagues still ravaged the land of Egypt and the empire was disintegrating. It could be that he knew the account of the Hebrew God defeating the gods of Egypt during the time of his grandfather Tuthmosis IV. This may have influenced his decision to abandon the gods of Egypt who were impotent against the one true God. As a result, he began to worship Aten as the only god whose attributes begin to mirror that of Yahweh, the God of Israel.

 

Remaining Questions

There is the question of how do we account for the passage in Exodus 1:11 that names the city of Ramses?  Most scholars believe this refers to Ramses II who ruled from 1290 BCE and reigned till 1230 BCE. Therefore, many scholars date the Exodus in the mid 13^th century BC. However, we run into some problems with this date.

If the City of Exodus 1 is built for Ramses II then Moses was born after the Jews built the city of Ramses II rule for the passage states that the Israelites, “They built for Pharaoh store cities, Pithom and Rameses.” Moses is born after this occurs. It is not possible for Moses to grow up in Egypt, flee and live in exile in Midian, return to lead the Exodus and guide Israel for forty years in the desert, when the Merneptah Stele states that Israel was established in the land by 1220 BCE.

Who could Ramses be referring to in Exodus 1:11? The name Ramses existed before 1200 BC. There were Hyksos Kings called Ramses earlier than 15^th century BC. Also, in the Joseph narrative of Genesis, a ruler named Rameses is named in Genesis 47:11. So the author could be referring to a Rameses of an earlier period.

Another possible explanation is that a later editor updated the old name of the city to the modern name of Rameses. We find this practiced in the Bible and in many historical works. Later scribes will use an updated name of a city or even a country because the prior name was changed or no longer used.

 

Conclusion

For centuries, critics and liberal scholars have treated the Exodus as a legend invented by Jewish scribes in the seventh century BC. These scholars believe that the Israelites were Canaanites who arose to prominence in the seventh century and created this story to give themselves a history and an identity. If this is true, the divine inspiration and inerrancy of the Bible would be in question.

I believe the Exodus is a historical event recorded in the Bible by Moses. When you look at the biblical text and the archaeology, you can build a case for the authenticity of this narrative. If the date of 1406 BC is the correct date as I have argued, I believe the world of the Bible and Near Eastern Archaeology come together in a reasonable manner. Therefore, I believe we can conclude with reasonable confidence that the greatest event of the Old Testament is indeed a historical event.

______________________________________________

[1] Collins, Steven. The Harvest Handbook™ of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures (p. 327). Harvest House Publishers. Kindle Edition.

[2] Ibid., 327

[3] Ibid., 328.

[4] Edwin Yamauchi, The Stones and the Scriptures, (Grand Rapids, MI.: Baker Book House, 1972), 146 – 154.

[5]Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000 – 586 BC. (New York: Doubleday Publishing, 1990), 187.

[6] Alfred Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids, MI.: Baker Books, 1998), 94.

[7]Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000 – 586 BC. (New York: Doubleday Publishing, 1990), 194-195.

[8] Kenneth Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids, MI.: Eerdmans Publishing, 2003), 247.

[9]Kitchen, 247

[10]Hoerth, 160.

[11] Steven Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures (Eugene, OR.: Harvest House Publishers, 2019), 131.

[12] Steven Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures (Eugene, OR.: Harvest House Publishers, 2019), 131.

[13] Joe Holden and Norman Geisler, The Popular Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible (Eugene, OR.: Harvest House Publishers, 2013), 230-31.

[14] Steven Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures (Eugene, OR.: Harvest House Publishers, 2019), 123.

[15] Collins, 90.

[16] Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, eds., “3 Reigns,” in A New English Translation of the Septuagint (Primary Texts), trans. Bernard A. Taylor and Paul D. McLean (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 3 Kgdms 6:1.

[17] Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, eds., “Exodus,” in A New English Translation of the Septuagint (Primary Texts), trans. Larry J. Perkins (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), Ex 12:40.

[18] Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures, 101.

[19] Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988), 248.

[20] Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures, 102.

[21] Collins, 102.

[22]  Biblical Archaeological Society, “Bible Artifacts Found Outside the Trench: The Amarna Tablets” 15 July, 2011,

https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/artifacts-and-the-bible/bible-artifacts-found-outside-the-trench-the-amarna-tablets/

[23] Brian Fagan, “Did Akhenaten’s Monotheism Influence Moses?” Biblical Archaeological Society,  https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/41/4/5

[24] Steven Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures, 126.

[25] Steven Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures, 126.

[26] Steven Collins, The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures, 103.

[27] Holden and Geisler, 223.

[28] Holden and Geisler, 223-224.

[29] Collins, Steven. The Harvest Handbook™ of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography and Culture of the Scriptures (pp. 108-109). Harvest House Publishers. Kindle Edition.)

[30]Brian Fagan, “Akhenaten and Moses,” Biblical Archaeology Society,  July  2015, https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-near-eastern-world/akhenaten-and-moses/

[31] Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988), 242.

[32] Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988), 240.