“I saw the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven, there came one like the son of man…” (Daniel 7:13 ESV).

Daniel 7:13 is an Old Testament passage familiar to most Christians because Jesus uses this passage to claim to be the LORD, and it is appropriately the climax of the trial scene in the Synoptic Gospels.^[1] An observant reader of the Old Testament will notice that the LORD is often associated with rain, storms, fertility, and cloud imagery, and Daniel 7:13 is no exception. This imagery begins in Genesis 2:5, where the LORD is credited with the lack of rain on the earth before the creation of Adam, implying Yahweh’s control over rain. Explicit passages crediting control of the weather and fertility to Yahweh abound in the Old Testament.^[2] Theophanies of the LORD, as in Exodus 19 and Ezekiel 1, are filled with storm imagery. Yahweh comes in clouds, thunder, great noise, and lightning, and shakes the earth.^[3]

However, storm and weather imagery is also associated with another, more infamous deity: Baal. The excavation of Ras-Shamra Ugarit (a Canaanite city) in the 1930s uncovered tablets that, while fragmentary, seem to describe Baal’s victory over Yamm, the Canaanite sea god, and Mot, the Canaanite god of the Underworld. Among the descriptions of Baal at Ugarit is the epithet, “Rider on the Clouds”,^[4] an idea that describes the LORD in several biblical passages.^[5] Baal uses two clubs to defeat Yamm, which are clear symbols of thunder and lightning.^[6] When Mot threatens Baal to get him to come into the underworld, a drought occurs, indicating Baal’s control over the weather.^[7] Baal, as described in the Ugaritic texts, is the god who controls the weather and the resulting fertility of the land.

The parallels between the descriptions of Baal and the LORD are striking. However, the Ugaritic texts are significantly older than any section of the Old Testament even if one assumes Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, and the Canaanites were in Mesopotamia long before the Israelites conquered the Promised Land.^[8] Consequently, the writers of the Old Testament in several instances almost certainly borrowed material from Canaanite literature, which has caused more than a few people to speculate that the LORD must simply be the Israelite version of Baal. What, then, is Canaanite literature doing in the Bible?

Firstly, it is perfectly reasonable for Israelites to describe the LORD with storm, cloud, and fertility imagery. Israel was an agricultural society, as was the entire Ancient Near East, and depended on favorable weather patterns in order to grow crops. Without favorable weather conditions, crops would die and the people would starve. Such a significant dependence on the weather makes the association of the LORD with rain and the fertility of the land by the Israelites a natural association because life depended on temperate weather. Furthermore, storms were terrifying events because of the sheer might of the wind, thunder, lightning, and rain combined, making storms a perfect symbol for divine beings. Practically every culture associates some kind of divine figure with fertility and storms, so it should not come as a surprise that both the Ancient Near East and Israel described their deities in similar language.

However, there are several places in the Old Testament where the similarities to the texts at Ugarit cannot be explained by common living experiences, and the biblical authors are almost certainly borrowing from Canaanite literature. This leads to the next point: the Old Testament authors deliberately used storm imagery associated with Baal as a theological polemic to exalt the LORD. One of the clearest examples of this is Psalm 68.

While the exact interpretation of Psalm 68 is notorious and debated among scholars,^[9] Psalm 68 is agreed to be a psalm of God’s triumph over His enemies. After declaring the scattering of the wicked and the rejoicing of the righteous, the psalmist clearly alludes to Baal by commanding his audience to,

“Sing to God, sing praises to his name; lift up a song to him who rides through the deserts…” (Psalm 68:4 ESV, emphasis added)

An astute Bible reader will notice that various translations of the Bible translate Psalm 68:4 differently.^[10] For example, NIV reads, “Sing to God, sing in praise of his name, extol him who rides on the clouds…” (Psalm 68:4 NIV, emphasis added)

Regardless of the slight ambiguity, the phrase “him who rides through the deserts/on the clouds” directly references Baal’s epithet “Rider of the Clouds,” which in both translations has been credited to the LORD. In the context of the psalm, Psalm 68:4 is part of a larger section recounting the Exodus and wilderness wanderings in Egypt, which is made apparent in verses 7-10. It is essential to acknowledge that one of the major failures of Israel in the wilderness was idol worship, specifically of Baal;^[11] such failure remained seared in the consciousness of the nation.^[12] There is also mention of the earth shaking and the heavens raining before God in verse 8, imagery strongly associated with Baal.^[13] Furthermore, verses 15-18 depict the storming and conquering of Mount Bashan by the LORD and His chariots. Mount Bashan is important because the mountain was a place strongly linked with the forces of evil and became a symbol for darkness^[14], and is explicitly linked with the sea in verse 22 through parallelism. Not only was Baal depicted as riding on a chariot as a mighty warrior, but he was also known for defeating Yamm, the god of the sea, and establishing order in the world, as mentioned previously. All of this imagery, when combined with Baal’s epithet in verse 4, creates a potent cocktail of imagery meant to convey a singular message. Yahweh, not Baal, is Israel’s God and “[he] who rides the clouds/through the deserts”. It was the LORD who delivered the nation out of Egypt, and it will be the LORD who ultimately will storm Mount Bashan and conquer the forces of evil and chaos as a mighty and victorious warrior, not Baal. The epithet and surrounding Baal imagery are brilliantly used by the psalmist to glorify the LORD as the God of Israel.

Finally, while there are some parallels between the LORD and Baal, there are also significant differences between what is known about the two deities. Two examples will suffice. Firstly, there is a significant power difference between the two deities. In the Ugaritic texts, while the text is fragmentary, the god Mot not only successfully intimidates Baal, but kills him. After the rebirth of Baal,^[15] Mot challenges Baal, and the two fight in a stalemate battle, with Baal prevailing only because the god Shapsh warns Mot that if he continues to fight Baal, El the high god will take away Mot’s dominion of the underworld.^[16] Furthermore, Baal and Mot’s dominions are limited to the heavens and underworld respectively. In contrast, there is no god who can challenge the LORD; He is depicted as the all-powerful ruler of the universe and He is in no danger of being killed.^[17] The LORD’s dominion is not limited to a singular domain.

Secondly, there is a gross difference in marital status and sexual activity between Baal and the LORD. While the exact identification is unclear, it is known that Baal had several consorts that he copulated with; the Ugaritic texts depict Baal sleeping with one of his consorts who is in the form of a heifer,^[18] and later on, the goddess Anath announces to Baal that an ox has been born to Baal as a son.^[19] However, the LORD is never depicted as having a consort or engaging in sexual activity.^[20] Speaking of the LORD, Isaiah 44:6 declares, “I am the first and the last; besides me there is no god”. Essentially, Baal is depicted as a god created in man’s image, while the LORD is a God who created man in His image.

The use of Baal imagery was an intentional decision by biblical authors to exalt the LORD as Israel’s God and to disparage Baal. To assert that the biblical authors were conflating the LORD with Baal, as some have claimed based on the Baal imagery in the Bible, is an overstatement of the evidence and ignores the greater context of the Old Testament. The biblical authors knew and took full advantage of the religious literature in other nations to make their points, and they did so with astonishing beauty and skill. The LORD is significantly different from Baal in important ways, as the biblical authors make clear. The presence of other religious literature in the Old Testament only accentuates one of the foundational messages of both the Old and New Testaments: the LORD is the only God worthy of praise and worship. To borrow the words from a contemporary worship song, “He’s coming on the clouds/kings and kingdoms will bow down”.

 

Bibliography

Corduan, Winfried. “Baal” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, edited by John D. Berry, David Bomar, Derek R. Brown, Rachel Klippenstein, Douglas Mangum, Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, Lazarus Wentz, et alt. Bellingham: Lexingham Press, 2016.

Dahood, Mitchell. Anchor Yale Bible: Psalm II, edited by Willia Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1968

Day, John. “Baal” in The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion, David F. Graf, John David Pleins, and Astrid B. Beck. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Heiser, Michael S. The Unseen Realm: Recovering The Supernatural Worldview of the Bible. Bellingham: Lexingham Press, 2015.

Herrman, W. “Baal” in Dictionary of Deities and Demons In The Bible, 2nd ed, edited by Karl van der Toorn, Bob Becking and Pieter W. van der Horst. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

Herrman, W. “Rider Upon The Clouds” in Dictionary of Deities and Demons In The Bible, 2nd ed, edited by Karl van der Toorn, Bob Becking and Pieter W. van der Horst. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar and Erich Zenger. Hermeneia: Psalms 2. Translated by Linda Maloney. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005.

Köhler, Ludwig, Walter Baumgartner, M. E. J. Richardson, Johann Jakob Stamm, and Benedikt Hartmann. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Koninklijjke Brill NV, 2000.

Phelps, Mark Anthony. “Baal (Deity)” in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers and Astrid B. Beck. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.

Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament. Translated by W. F. Albright, Robert D. Briggs, J. J. Finkelstein, H. L. Ginsberg, Albrecht Goetze, A. K. Grayson, A. Jamme, et al. 3rd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.

1. Liwak, “רְפָאִים r^ep̱āʾîm” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Volume 13, edited by G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry, translated by John T. Willis, Douglas W. Stott, and David E. Green, rev ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004

Tate, Marvin E. Word Biblical Commentary: Psalms 51-100, edited by David A. Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, John D. W. Watts, and Ralph P. Martin. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991.

Wright, N. T. and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament In Its World: An Introduction to The History, Literature, and Theology of The First Christians. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019.

 

About the Author

Justin Takiguchi serves as an intern for Evidence and Answers. He received his B.A. in Religion from the University of Hawaii at Manoa, and he enjoys reading anything about the Ancient Near East. Specific research interests include original language exegesis, comparative studies, and the biblical view of the spiritual realm. Outside of his studies, Justin loves powerlifting, irritating his friends and family with bad Bible jokes, getting destroyed in jiu-jitsu, and pineapple on pizza. He can be reached through his email (justakiguchi@gmail.com).

 

About Evidence and Answers

Evidence and Answers is a Christian Apologetics ministry based in Hawaii designed to proclaim the Gospel of Christ by presenting the compelling evidence for Christianity, defend the faith against the challenges that come upon it, and equip Christians to engage their world for Christ. We fulfill our mission through our radio show Evidence and Answers, website (evidenceandanswers.org), teaching, conferences, publications, and educational tours.

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Notes

[1]	See Matthew 26:64, Mark 14:62, Luke 22:69.
[2]	For examples, see Genesis 9:14, Deuteronomy 11:11-15, 1 Samuel 12:17, 1 Kings 17:1, Job 5:10, 26:8, 38:25-30, 35-37, Isaiah 5:6, 45:8, Zechariah 10:1.
[3]	Other Old Testament theophanies contain similar imagery. For examples, see 2 Samuel 22:8-16/Psalm 18:7-15, Job 36:26-37:24, 38:1, 22, Psalm 77:16-19, 97:1-7, 104:3, 105:39, 135:7, 144:5-6, Isaiah 30:30, Nahum 1:3, Zechariah 9:14.
[4]	James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 132, 134, 137-138, 142.
[5]	See Psalm 68:4, Isaiah 19:1, Jeremiah 4:13, Daniel 7:13.
[6]	John Day. “Baal” in The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion, David F. Graf, John David Pleins and Astrid B. Beck (New York: Doubleday, 1992).
[7]	Pritchard, ANET, 133, 139.
[8]	See Genesis 12:6.
[9]	Marvin E. Tate, in his introduction to Psalm 68, wryly writes, “the difficulties of interpreting Ps 68 are almost legendary” (170).
[10]	The translation difference is due to a debate on whether to understand the Hebrew in verse 4 (rkb b‘rbt)  as “rides through the desert” or “rides on the clouds”. Proponents of understanding rkb b‘rbt as “through the desert” see ‘rbt as the plural form of ‘rbh, commonly translated as “desert”, or “plain”. Proponents of understanding rkb b‘rbt as “rides on the clouds” note that the “Rider of the Clouds” epithet for Baal in Ugaritic is rkb ‘rpt, and because p and b are oftentimes interchanged in Northwest Semitic languages, the Hebrew of Psalm 68:4 and Ugaritic rkb ‘rpt are identical. For a defense of “rides through the desert”, see W. Herrman “Rider Upon The Clouds” in Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, edited by Karl van der Toorn, Bob Becking and Pieter W. van der Horst (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), and for a defense of “rides on the clouds”, see Mitchell Dahood, Anchor Yale Bible: Psalms II, edited by William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 136).
[11]	See Exodus 32, Numbers 25. While the precise identification of the golden calf in Exodus 32 is unclear, it is possible that the golden calf was meant to be an image of Baal.
[12]	Note the mention of idol worship in the wilderness occurs in numerous passages like Deuteronomy 4:3, 9:16, Nehemiah 9:18, and Psalm 106:28.
[13]	Pritchard, ANET, 135.
[14]	Bashan was ruled by King Og, who the Israelites defeated in Deuteronomy 3. Og is noted as a “remnant of the Rephaim” in verse 11, a term associated with the Anakim and Nephilim (Numbers 13:33, Deuteronomy 2:11), who were groups of evil giants opposed to the LORD that the Bible connects to Genesis 6:4 as illegitimate offspring of the sons of God. The Rephaim was also associated with the dead (Psalm 88:10, Isaiah 14:9, 26:14, Rephaim is translated as “dead” or “shades” in ESV). Bashan is, in Joshua 12:4-5, tied with Mount Hermon, a notorious place where it was believed the sons of God descended to commit the sin of Genesis 6:1-4 (1 Enoch 6:6, note 2 Peter 2 and Jude 3-16 make use of 1 Enoch 6), thus establishing Bashan/Mount Hermon as a place of darkness and supernatural evil opposed to God. It is not a coincidence that Jesus speaks Matthew 16:18 at Caesarea Philippi, which is not far from Mount Hermon. For a helpful introduction, see Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible (Bellingham: Lexingham Press, 192-201).
[15]	It cannot be emphasized enough that there is a great distinction between the resurrection of Jesus and the rebirth of Baal. This article is purposefully using the term “rebirth” instead of “resurrection” when referring to Baal because the death and rebirth of Baal are thought to represent the seasons. When Baal dies, winter comes across the land, but when he is reborn, spring occurs and crops grow. This is markedly distinct from the resurrection of Jesus because the resurrection of Jesus was a one-time event, not a seasonal occurrence. Furthermore, the rebirth of Baal assumes the continued power and presence of death, while the resurrection of Jesus assumes a complete triumph over death. For a great overview of resurrection in the Bible and its surrounding context, see N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament In Its World: An Introduction to The History, Literature, and Theology of The First Christians (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019, 264-295).
[16]	Pritchard, ANET, 141.
[17]	For examples, see Genesis 1, Deuteronomy 4:35, and Isaiah 45:22.
[18]	Pritchard, ANET, 139.
[19]	Ibid, 142
[20]	Especially see Leviticus 15, which prohibited men and women from entering sacred spaces if they had not gone through the proper purification rituals after sex. It is worth briefly mentioning the issue of the LORD’s consort. It is clear that there were many Israelites who believed the LORD had a consort, as both the biblical texts (i.e. Deuteronomy 16:21, Judges 6:25, 2 Kings 23:6) and archaeological finds of female figures from the time period indicate. However, it is a gross overstatement to assume all Israelites believed in a consort for the LORD or that the biblical authors were trying to hide such belief. Firstly, the biblical texts clearly write against such a belief, and because the biblical texts are primary sources from the time period, they cannot be ignored. It is likely there was religious plurality among the Israelites, a view perfectly coherent with the Bible and archaeological finds. Secondly, if one assumes the biblical authors were trying to hide Israelite belief in the LORD’s consort, then one must conclude that the biblical authors were incompetent and utterly failed in their attempt (a simple search of “Asherah” in ESV yields 19 verses!), which is unlikely given the known literary genius of the Bible and is quite frankly insulting to the intelligence of the biblical authors. The better explanation, as mentioned previously, is that there were a multitude of beliefs about God among Israel, one of which included belief in the LORD’s consort, and the biblical authors were writing against such a belief.